Wednesday, March 11, 2015

Navigating Time


If time is the fourth dimension then we should be able to navigate it.  Navigating time would explain many of the mysteries we see in our lives.  It would explain those feelings of events, good and bad, well beyond speculation.  Baseball players occasionally say, "I knew the next pitch was going to be mine," after they hit it "out-of-the-park."  

Given the physics involved it would appear to be a minor miracle that anyone could hit a baseball in motion by swinging a bat. Is it possible that we routinely navigate small intervals of time in our daily lives?  We are so familiar with this little window on the future we are unaware of it.

Pre-cognitive dreams, "hunches," visions and fantasies of things that happened in the distant past have all been well documented and in a few cases led to important discoveries.  We will include many such stories here as well as propose hypotheses and how they may be tested in order that we may better understand our universe and time.

We will be posting many pieces, but want your participation. Please submit your pieces to adrianvance7@gmail.com and we will edit and add illustrations if you do not have them in order to have a uniform, professional-looking blog that will be of value to as many as possible.

Adrian Vance

Tuesday, March 10, 2015

The Declining Speed of Light


Time was tied to the speed of light by Albert Einstein and he defined it as a constant, but we have recently found it is not.  This is one bit of physical evidence that time may be a navigable dimension.

Early in 1979, Australian undergraduate student Barry Setterfield thought it would be interesting to chart measurements of the speed of light since Dutch astronomer Olaf Roemer first measured it in the late 17th century.  Setterfield’s data included 163 measurements using 16 different methods over 300 years.

Early measurements tracked transits of the moons of Jupiter when it was near  Earth compared with observations when it was farther away.   The distance varies by 186 million miles over the year and time varied by 16.66 minutes between near and far transits so this data was used to compute the speed of light.

17th century astronomical clocks were calibrated by the stars daily.  Some wooden clocks were amazingly accurate as a result of the constant tinkering with the technology. The gears were made with exotic South American hardwoods, some with the strength of mild steel.  With regular calibration they told virtually perfect time. 

These observations are repeatable and have been done by astronomers regularly.  Early astronomers kept meticulous notes and sketches that are still available.

Setterfield expected to see recorded speeds grouped around the accepted value for light speed, 299,792 kilometers /second.  Half the historic measurements should have been higher and half lower. 

That was not the case.: The derived light speeds from the early measurements were consistently higher than today. The older the observation, the faster the speed of light!

Setterfield worked with the statistician Dr. Trevor Norman who demonstrated the speed of light was higher 100 years ago.  It was seven percent higher in the 1700’s!  Dr. Norman confirmed the measurements were correct with a statistical confidence greater than 99%.

Setterfield and Norman published their results at SRI in July 1987 after extensive peer review.  It would be easy to dismiss two relatively unknown researchers if theirs were the only voices and the historic data anomalous. But, that was very much not the case.

Since the SRI publication in 1987 researchers from RussiaAustraliaGreat Britain and the United States have published papers in prestigious journals questioning the constancy of the speed of light.   And, theoretical work suggests the speed of light was 10^10 (Ten followed by ten zeros.) times faster than now immediately after “Big Bang.” 

Where the values plotted on a curve approximate the math function cosecant squared there are interesting implications for the nature of time and space as this suggests, if not confims, an empirical physical regularity.

The night sky is a trip through time in billions of years. What does this do to the size of the universe?  At the very least it expands it by 10^10th, or ten billion times. And even more profoundly:  Time and the velocity of light are intertwined; the equations say at infinite light speed time vanishes!

There have been challenges to the original Hubble red-shift theory, particularly by Dr. William Tifft who found shifts not to be uniform, per Hubble, but in quantum-like bands with nothing in between.

Could this suggest stepped “C?”  Quantum time!  According to the Setterfield Hypothesis declining light speeds would cause changes in the quantum states of atomic structure within these galaxies, leading to quantum shifts in the light emitted which is precisely what Dr. Tifft detected.  His work has been confirmed.

And, where time is tied to the velocity of light, which is symbolized by the lettet "c," does this suggest that there was no time before the Big Bang? 

And, if we were from a time zero universe where everything happened all at once, could it be everything has happened?  And we a "movie" in a matrix?

Could we, as the Schroedinger-Heisingberg equations suggest, navigate time by changing our "when" much as electrons  change their address, vanishing here and appearing there?

Setterfield believes the speed of light was initially 10 to the 10th times faster than it is today. That is 10 billion times! After the creation of the universe, light speed declined following a curve fitting that of the cosecant squared curve.  Why?  He believes light speed reached a point where it is asymptotic (flat) in the mid 1960s.  Though reasonably constant, he believes the speed still varies in waves, sometimes higher and sometimes lower than the accepted standard. ( This is the part we question.)

After Dr. Tifft's initial publication, several astronomers devised extensive experiments in attempts to prove him wrong. Among them two Scottish astronomers, Bruce Gutherie and William Napier from the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh observed approximately 300 galaxies in the mid 1990s. But, they found confirmation of quantum banding in red-shift data.

They also had difficulty publishing their data. It has been reported that the prestigious Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics refused publication until an additional set of observations from 97 other spiral galaxies was included. A sophisticated Fourier analysis of the initial 302 early data points, and the subsequent total of 399 data points strongly confirmed quantum shifts.

Despite this and additional observations by Bell in 2003, many scientists are still reluctant to give up on the theory that red shifts are caused by Doppler effects and have continued to claim that the red-shift quanta results by Tifft and others are due to research and data insufficiencies or errors.

It is intriguing to note the first measurement of light speed by Olaf Roemer in the late 17th century was an attempt to disprove the Aristotelian belief that light speed was infinite. Overwhelming and repeatable evidence over 50 years accumulated before the scientific hierarchy of the time accepted evidence which, in retrospect was clear, compelling and unimpeachable.

A sampling of these values is listed below:

In 1738: 303,320 +/- 310 km/second (303,010 to 303,630)
In 1861: 300,050 +/- 60 km/second   (299,090 to 300,110)
In 1877: 299,921 +/- 13 km/second   (299,908 to 299,934)
In 2004: 299,792 km/second (accepted constant)

This is clear, undeniable evidence of the declining speed of light and much of what it implies.

Adrian Vance

Monday, March 9, 2015

Reincarnation


James Leininger

Closely related, if not involved with, the navigation of time is reincarnation where people with past lives appear to have traveled thought time to occupy bodies of the unborn and have new lives in new times.

Easily the best documented case of reincarnation is that of James Leininger who as a toddler had nightmares of being trapped in a crashed air craft in World War II.  He was born in 1998 and began having nightmarish dreams, at age two in 2000 AD.  This is the time when thoughts of reincarnation first appear in most cases. The following account is the most rigorously documented in the western hemisphere.



The Past Life Memories of James Leininger

The Past Life Memories of James Leininger. If he wasn't born yet, how could a 6-year-old Lafayette boy possibly remember a plane crash that occurred off the Japanese coast during World War II? By Wes Milligan

"When a child speaks of a past life memory, the effects ripple far. At the center is the child, who is directly healed and changed. The parents standing close by are rocked by the truth of the experience - a truth powerful enough to dislodge deeply entrenched beliefs. For observers removed from the actual event - even those just reading about it - reports of a child's past life memory can jostle the soul toward new understanding. Children's past life memories have the power to change lives."

- Carol Bowman, author of  "Children's Past Lives."  Note:  This is an excellent book and well documented.

Parents are usually somewhat concerned when their children have nightmares. The tears alone on the face of a child are enough to tug at the heart.  Eventually, after the parents comfort their children and allay their fears, children close their eyes and fall back asleep. Things return to normal, and nightmares are forgotten.

However, when the nightmares began four years ago for 6-year-old James Leininger of Lafayette, his parents, Bruce and Andrea were troubled. The nightmares came as often as four times a week, and James would violently kick and scream with feet in the air. It appeared as though he was fighting with something or buried in a box, trying to get out. The only way he could escape the nightmares was for his parents to shake him awake. The dreams were out of control.

James Leininger was fascinated with airplanes before he was two years old. Above: James, at age six enjoyed a moment at the controls of a plane. Above, right: James Huston Jr., whose tragic death during World War II is remembered in detail by young James Leininger, pauses for a picture sometime in 1944, the year before he was shot down. But it was what James would utter during his thrashing nightmares that would make the hair on the back of his mom's neck stand up.

"He would say, 'Airplane crash on fire, little man can't get out,'" Andrea says.

Bruce and Andrea began to rack their brains about the source of the disturbing information, which they believed was fueling these nightmares. An educated couple, Bruce and Andrea had always tried to create a "Mozart for the mind" atmosphere for their child and had strenuously kept violence away from his sight. So they began to analyze their dinner conversations, what James was watching on television, and other things that could influence him. Bruce and Andrea weren't involved in aviation, and their 2-year-old boy couldn't read yet. There had to be a logical explanation.

Looking for answers, Andrea began to seek help outside of their home. The nightmares weren't going away, and the Leiningers didn't know what they could do to stop them. The possible cures seemed few, and it even crossed Bruce's mind that an exorcism might be necessary if the nightmares didn't end.

Then Andrea's mother, Barbara Scoggin, suggested an explanation that later seemed to be the right answer: James may have been experiencing a past life memory.

After reading about counselor Carol Bowman from Pennsylvania, Ms. Scoggin explained how Mrs. Bowman was an expert on a child phenomenon that was similar to what James was experiencing. Mrs. Bowman had also authored a book, Children's Past Lives: How Past Life Memories Affect Your Child" as her own son had similar problems with nightmares and strange recollections.

Andrea called her immediately. Then after several discussions with Mrs. Bowman, Andrea took her advice and began to talk to James about his nightmares right after they happened. As a result, Andrea says, the nightmares decreased drastically.

"When we are dreaming, our conscious minds are not filtering material as when we are in a waking state, so unconscious material, including past life memories, emerge," Mrs. Bowman explains. "It is not uncommon for young children to dream of their previous lives. We tend to notice the nightmares, because they disturb the sleep and are often dramatic, realistic stories, as in James' case. They are often recurring, as the child relives the same dramatic events over and over.  On some level, they are seeking resolution to these disturbing memories. When Andrea acknowledged what James was remembering in his dreams - his plane crashing - it helped him move through the trauma."

But the side effect, which Mrs. Bowman expected, was that James' statements about the crashing airplane and the man who couldn't get out became more detailed, more real to him.

Bruce and Andrea Leininger pose for a portrait with their son, James. The parents say they believe their son has been touched by the spirit of a World War II pilot named James Huston Jr. Now, during the day, James began to consciously mention how "his" plane took off from the water and the Japanese shot down his plane. He even began to be more specific with plane designations and the name of an aircraft carrier that was stationed near Japan during World War II. The eerie and specific details caused Bruce to take up a research quest with Andrea's help to disprove all of James' "facts."

Through all of their research, spanning nearly five years with thousands of declassified documents, personal interviews and military resources, Bruce and Andrea Leininger say they are now finally sure of one thing: Their son is linked with the spirit of a World War II Navy pilot by the name of James M. Huston Jr., who died in 1945.

Peculiar 'coincidences' observed from the beginning

Bruce and Andrea say they began to see signs of a spirit linked with their son when James was 20 months old. While moving from Richardson, Texas, to Lafayette in February of 2000, Bruce took James to the Cavanaugh Flight Museum in Addison, Texas. Andrea says planes had always been his fixation: He spent hours playing with toy planes and he would yell when he saw a real plane in the air.

Bruce recalls his son being mesmerized with the planes at the museum; the boy kept wandering back to the World War II section of the museum. When he tried to take James away from the exhibit, after being there for nearly three hours, James put up a fuss and started to cry. To satisfy his curiosity and to calm him, Bruce bought him a Navy Blue Angels flight demonstration videotape at the museum. James played it so much that he practically wore it out.

James Leininger signed his drawings "James 3" before his father knew about James Huston Jr. In April of 2000, after getting settled in their new home in Lafayette, James' nightmares began. Bruce and Andrea at first attributed their son's nightmares to being in a new home with unfamiliar sounds. But when they didn't stop, the parents' interest went to a whole new level.

Meanwhile, the furniture suffered from James' toy plane collection. James would crash his toy planes into tables and chairs, Andrea recalls with laughter as she points to the numerous nicks on the living room table. The table served as a landing strip for his planes. Crashing became such an obsession to James that whenever someone mentioned flying, James would blurt out, "Plane crash on fire," which Andrea says unnerved her.

But still, Bruce and Andrea admitted, these actions were similar to those of any child growing up - that is, until James became really specific with details of his nightmarish crash.

From July to September of 2000, James began to tell his parents that the plane in his nightmares was shot down by the Japanese after it had taken off from a ship on the water. When James was asked if he knew who the pilot was, he simply replied "James."

Andrea asked James what type of plane he was flying in his dreams, and he said it was a "Corsair." Then, after repeated attempts to push for more information right after the nightmares, Bruce and Andrea got the word "Natoma."

On a whim to try and make sense of it all, Bruce did a simple Internet search for the word Natoma. The result: there existed an aircraft carrier by the name of U.S.S. Natoma Bay, stationed in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. Bruce thought then it was just a coincidence.

James Huston Jr., a World War II fighter pilot, as he appeared on Feb. 7, 1945, about one month before he was killed in action. In October of 2000, another piece of the puzzle came clear. After another nightmare, James gave his parents the name of Jack Larsen, and he said it was Larsen who flew with James.

The next month, James relinquished another piece of information, which floored his already-skeptical father. Bruce was thumbing through a book, Battle For Iwo Jima,Derrick Wright, which he had recently received from a history book club. While Bruce was inspecting the book, James jumped into his lap to watch cartoons. While waiting for the cartoons to come on, James looked at the book with his dad. Suddenly, James pointed to a map of Iwo Jima near Chichi Jima and said, "Daddy, that is where my plane was shot down." Bruce says he almost keeled over. Weeks later, after several more Internet searches, Bruce stumbled upon a website that referred to the Natoma Bay Association. He contacted a Leo Pyatt, who later said he was a radioman on an Avenger fighter plane with the VC-81 squadron.

Bruce couldn't hold in the questions. He asked Pyatt if there were any Corsairs flown on the Natoma Bay. Pyatt said no - only Avengers and Wildcats. Bruce then asked if he had flown any missions near Iwo Jima, and Pyatt said he had been a part of 36 missions there. Finally came the real question, about the existence of Jack Larsen. Pyatt said he knew Larsen, but he never knew what happened to him.

After realizing so many details from a 2-year-old boy were somehow realistic in nature, Bruce became a man possessed, trying to disprove all of these "coincidences." He began to track down military records from across the nation. His ultimate goal was to disprove these "coincidences" and to end the silly idea, once and for all, that a supposed spirit was affecting his son.

Consequently, he needed to find Jack Larsen.

Parts of the puzzle begin to come together

Bruce couldn't find anything on a Jack Larsen - anywhere - in military records after his son mentioned the name. He searched every list he could find from the U.S. National Archives on the men who died who were stationed on the Natoma Bay and all carriers during World War II. There were several Larsens and Larsons who had died, but no Jack Larsen of the Natoma Bay. He searched for more than a year, with nothing to show for it. He almost gave up.

The problem was Bruce was looking for a dead man. After attending a Natoma Bay Association Reunion in September of 2002, Bruce found out that Jack Larsen was alive and well in Springdale, Ark.

But the reunion unearthed something far more important to his son's puzzling nightmares. After speaking with veterans from the carrier and their families, never mentioning the motivation of his son's unexplainable behavior, Bruce learned there were 21 men who were lost from the Natoma Bay.

James Huston Jr. was a fighter pilot in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Above, left: Huston poses with his Corsair plane - the same type of aircraft that James Leininger mentioned by name during his earliest nightmares. Above, right: The U.S.S. Natoma Bay is the carrier from which Huston flew for some five months before he was shot down. The carrier lost 21 men during its campaign in the Pacific. One of those men was a Lt. James McCready Huston Jr. from the VC-81 fighter squadron, who was shot down at the age of 21 on a special strike mission against shipping in Futami Ko Harbor at Chichi Jima, according to declassified aircraft action reports. Huston had volunteered for the mission, the last mission he would have flown before returning to the United States. He was the only pilot from the Natoma Bay who was shot down at Chichi Jima.

The name stuck out even more in Bruce's mind because the Leiningers had noticed that James had been signing his name as "James 3" on his crayon drawings of World War II planes. He was even saying he was "James 3" - months before the reunion - implying that perhaps since Huston was named after his father, James Leininger was the third.

At this point, Bruce says he became frustrated because his quest to disprove the possibility that his son was experiencing a past life was going in the wrong direction.

"All he ever draws are planes fighting, and he knows the type of planes. I mean he even draws the red sun for the Japanese," Bruce says. "But after he drew 'James 3' for the first time, I asked him why he did that. James said, 'I'm the third. I'm James 3.' He's been calling himself that ever since he was 3 years old. I think he is struggling with something unresolved or he just wouldn't be still drawing those images, like a needle stuck on a record. "

Determined to fill in the missing pieces of the puzzle, Bruce visited Larsen in Arkansas in September of 2002 and asked him about Huston. Larsen said he couldn't remember what happened to Huston, but he was sure his plane had been hit by anti-aircraft fire on March 3, 1945 - the day Huston failed to return from his mission and was then pronounced missing in action. Larsen had been Huston's wingman during the day's run to Chichi Jima.

However, Bruce still had hope that all of this talk about spirits was wrong. After vigorously checking into the squadron's aircraft action records, he found out that Huston was shot down in a FM2 Wildcat fighter plane - not a Corsair - and no one at the reunion mentioned anything about Corsairs taking off from the Natoma Bay. Bruce says this apparent inaccuracy gave him hope that all of this was just a series of coincidences.

Just to make sure, Bruce tried to find members of Huston's family. In February of 2003 he made contact with Anne Huston Barron, Huston's sister, who now lives in Los Gatos, Calif. Through several phone conversations, the Leiningers and Ms. Barron became friends, and she agreed to send Bruce photos of her brother during his military service. The packages of photos arrived in February and March of 2003.

In one of the packages was a photo of Huston standing in front of a Corsair fighter plane - the same kind of plane James had mentioned over and over. According to Bruce, interviews with past servicemen and declassified U.S. military records, before Huston joined up with the Natoma Bay and VC-81, he was part of an elite special squadron, the VF-301 Devil's Disciples, from January to August of 1944.

The elite squadron test-flew Corsairs for carrier use, and only 20 pilots were selected for this assignment. However, the VF-301 squadron was disbanded after eight months and Huston was then transferred to VC-81 on Oct. 8, 1944.

When he learned this, Bruce says, all of his skepticism vanished.

"I don't have an answer for this, so I can't explain it either," Bruce says. "Through it all, there has to be an element of faith. There could still be the coincidence of dreaming this all up, but there are odd factors you have to calculate. Lightning can strike once, but when it strikes eight or nine times, you can't say it's a coincidence."

Bruce didn't tell Mrs. Barron about his son's supernatural story until later that fall, in October of 2003. When he finally told her about the possibility of her brother's spirit being a part of James, she says she was stunned at first and had to let it all sink in. Then on Oct. 15, 2003, Bruce and Andrea received a letter from her, along with several of Huston's personal effects, that not only said she felt James should have the belongings, but that she truly believed the story.

"This child couldn't know the things he does - he just couldn't - so I believe he is somehow a part of my brother," Ms. Barron says. "These are the things you read about. There must be a reason for it, but I have no hint of what it could be. It's some phenomenon that I don't understand. It all happened nearly 60 years ago. There must be a reason."

Despite not knowing the reason for these coincidences, Ms. Barron is convinced that James Leininger is somehow linked to her lost brother. She now calls the 6-year-old boy "James 3." In turn, he refers to Mrs. Barron, who is 86 years old, as his sister.

As Bruce would uncover more information about Huston, without telling James about any of it, the Leiningers would notice more about their son's actions. James had three G.I. Joe dolls and named them Leon, Walter and Billie - names of three pilots who coincidently served with Huston.

According to U.S. Pacific Fleet records, Lt. Leon Stevens Conner, Ensign Walter John Devlin and Ensign Billie Rufus Peeler were among the 21 fatalities from the Natoma Bay. They were also members of the VC-81 air squadron with Huston. When asked why he named the dolls the way he did, Bruce says James answered, "Because they greeted me when I went to heaven.'"

After James said that, Bruce could only leave the room in stunned silence.

James also explained to his father how Corsairs would frequently have flat tires and would always tend to turn to the left. After checking with military historians at the Lone Star Flight Museum in Galveston, Texas, the statement was verified.

Andrea recalls the first time she cooked meatloaf for James, who had never had the meal in his life. After Andrea told him they were having meatloaf for dinner, James said he hadn't had meatloaf since he was on the Natoma Bay. So, Bruce and Andrea contacted several veterans from the carrier, and they learned that meatloaf was a regular meal for the crew.

The day James Huston's plane went down

After discovering the Corsair connection was real, there was one significant detail from James' dreams that needed to be explained: exactly how the plane was shot down. After another wave of nightmares, Bruce and Andrea recall how James would say his plane was shot in the engine, and he would repeatedly check and make sure fire extinguishers were available and marked wherever they went.

However, none of Huston's wingmen - Jack Larsen, Bob Greenwalt or William Mathson Jr. - from the VC-81 squadron saw his plane shot down on March 3, 1945, mostly because his plane was the last to dive in the strafing run, according to VC-81 military war diaries. Greenwalt, who also served with Huston as a Devil's Disciple, says when the squadron realized that Huston's plane was no longer in the air, their planes took a second run to look for debris. They found nothing. With no eyewitnesses, the Leiningers could only "believe" that Huston had been shot down near Futami Ko Harbor at Chichi Jima.

As luck would have it, in June of 2003, another veteran helped Bruce with his research. An Internet posting left by him on the Natoma Bay Association website nearly a year earlier caught the attention of a veteran by the name of Jack Durham. Durham turned out to be a member of the VC-83 torpedo-bomber medium (TBM) squad from the U.S.S. Sargent Bay that had run parallel to Huston's squadron on the day he was shot down. According to U.S.S. Natoma Bay aircraft action reports, the VC-81 squadron covered the TBMs during the Futami Ko Harbor strike. Without a doubt, Durham says, he saw Huston's plane shot down by anti-aircraft fire - a fact confirmed by VC-83 aircraft action reports.

Pulling up more records on the bomber squad and reading their military war diaries, Bruce then contacted other VC-83 crew members - John Richardson, Bob Skelton and Ralph Clarbour - and they all confirmed that not only had Huston's plane been shot down, but they saw it get hit in the engine, causing an explosion in the front of the plane. It then crashed into Futami Ko Harbor, the same place James pointed to in the history book with his father in November of 2000.

Every detail of James' dreams have been verified to the Leiningers' satisfaction, whether through eyewitness accounts, personal interviews or military records. Bruce and Andrea say they are absolutely convinced that Huston's spirit has touched James. They just can't figure out why or how exactly.

"If a soul reincarnates with 'unfinished business,' or dies a traumatic death, these memories are more likely to carry over into another life," says Ms. Bowman, the author and expert on such metaphysical phenomena. "In James' case, he died a traumatic death as a young man. There was still much emotion and energy that may have propelled these memories forward. … As I see it, a part of James Huston's consciousness survived death and is a part of James Leininger's soul consciousness. The present incarnation is not a carbon copy of the last, but contains aspects of James Huston's personality and experience."

James continues to recall his past life memories, even today. But Bowman says children usually lose their abilities to remember past life memories by the age of 7. With time running out, what could be the final piece to the puzzle is the crash site itself, and if the cockpit were jammed shut, it would explain the first nightmares. But due to U.S. military regulations concerning downed aircraft in foreign waters, Bruce says diving on the site and disturbing the remains of the pilot would be prohibited.

Source: www.acadianaprofile.com

Sunday, March 8, 2015

Reality

Lord Rutherford

It is important to realize everything we see is an illusion.  Nothing is solid.  The heaviest metal is 99.999% empty space, but so is everything else!

How do we know?  In the early part of the 20th century, around 1909, we say as this work took some time.  The investigator was one of England's greatest physical scientists, Earnest Rutherford or Lord Rutherford.  He wanted to know more about the structure of atoms.  Were they solid, like rocks or "BB's" or did they have a structure?

He knew the metal he could work into the thinnest samples was gold that had been beaten between two sheets of parchment to the point it was estimated to be only a few hundred atoms thick as determined by the mass and area of the beaten gold.  

Much other evidence suggested that atoms were very small, on the order of 10 billionths of one centimeter.  Or, as scientists would say ten to the minus eighth centimeter.

Where scientists have to deal in very small and very large numbers they use "scientific notation" where numbers like one million are "one times ten to the sixth," or 1.0 X 10^6 for 1,000,000.  

In this case, where the one is to the right side of the decimal point for 0.00000001 cm we say 1.0 x 10^-8 cm, one times ten to the minus eighth.  And, that was thought to be the size of an atom based on a lot of work so getting a gold sheet down to the thickness of a few hundred of these tiny particles was convenient for what Rutherford wanted to do.

He had participated in much of the early work on radioactive elements and knew radium and thorium emitted radiation, small, high-speed particles that would pass through a gold leaf and make a spot on a plate or film that had been coated with a silver halide precipitate held in place with solidified gelatin, a "photographic plate."

Dr. Rutherford controlled the radiation by putting the radioactive element particle source in the bottom of a hole drilled into a lead block which would absorb all the particles emitted, but those aimed at the small hole.  It was a gun of sub-atomic particles making a very narrow beam.

He did a series of experiments beginning with a single photographic plate and he got strange patterns suggesting some of the radioactive particles were coming through as if nothing were there. But, the density of the deposit on the plate was definitely greater without the gold sheet in place than it was when it was in place when exposed for the same time.  And, there were some deposits at odd angles, as if they had hit something!  Something very hard.  In thinking about it he wondered why some of the particles did not come through at all?  Were they absorbed?  Were they reflected?  Or bounced? 

All of these questions could be answered if he used a long strip of film in a circle around the particle emitting block, or "gun" so he built an apparatus for that and when he ran the experiment he was astounded to see that some of the particles were reflected as if they had hit a hard wall and this was a tissue thin sheet of gold leaf!


Lord Rutherford did the experiment many times and analyzed the data with statistical mathematics to derive a model that would fit the evidence knowing he was going to upset the world with his new model of the atom, the things of which everything is made.  The building blocks of the universe.  The most permanent thing we know.  Atoms are literally forever while everything they form is not, and therein lies a profound message:

When he put it all together Lord Rutherford had compiled data that described the building block of the universe as something that was 99.999% empty space.  


It was ten millionths centimeter in diameter and within it was an infinitely hard particle that was one ten thousandth that size, a trillionth of a centimeter in diameter and containing, by far, most of the mass of the atom while surrounded by a cloud of electrons that filled the space so well we interpret them to be solid, but that is only a trick of our perception   Everything of which we are made is absolutely not as we perceive and think it to be.  99.999% of everything is empty space.

Adrian Vance